Gas chromatography-mass spectrometry separates chemical mixtures (gas phase) and identifies components at the molecular level (mass phase). It is one of the most accurate tools for analyzing environmental samples.

Flame photometry is used to determine the concentration of alkaline earth and alkaline elements (in inorganic chemical analysis to determine the concentration of certain metal ions including sodium, potassium, lithium, and calcium) in aqueous solutions.

A spectrophotometer, or visible and ultraviolet spectrometer, sometimes called UV, is a device for measuring the amount of a substance based on the amount of electromagnetic absorption of that substance.

Fourier transform infrared (FTIR) spectroscopy is a method that scientists use to determine the structure of molecules by absorbing characteristic infrared radiation. The infrared spectrum is the vibrational spectrum of a molecule. When exposed to infrared radiation, sample molecules selectively absorb radiation of specific wavelengths, which causes a change in the dipole moment of the sample molecules.

The Autolab is an ideal choice for those looking for a low-cost, compact, yet high-performance electrochemical analyzer. Fully integrated with NOVA software, this compact instrument can perform resistance measurements in the microhertz to megahertz frequency range.

HPLC analysis, or high-performance liquid chromatography, is suitable for analyzing and separating chemical and plant compounds and is used in various fields of chemistry, pharmacy, industrial chemistry, and clinical diagnostics.

A silicate glass used for glass membranes consists of an infinite three-dimensional structure of four negatively charged SiO4 groups, in which each silicon is bonded to four oxygens and each oxygen to two silicons. Within the network of this structure there are enough cations to neutralize the negative charge of the silicate group. Singly charged cations such as sodium and lithium move in the network and are responsible for electrical conduction within the membrane.

The pH of water determines the concentration of hydrogen ions and its acidity or alkalinity. Pure water dissociates to a very small extent into H and OH ions. The pH of drinking water should usually be around 7 (neutral). If the pH is less than 7, the water is acidic, and if the pH is above 7, the water is alkaline.

The National Fire Protection Association (NFPA) has developed a standard called NFPA 704 that is used to identify hazards from materials (especially chemicals). Among occupational health and safety experts, this standard has become known as the Hazard Diamond. It seems that the Rescue Diamond might have been a more appropriate name for the Hazard Diamond!

X-ray fluorescence or XRF analysis is the characteristic emission of "secondary" (or fluorescent) X-rays from a material that has been excited by bombardment with high-energy X-rays or gamma rays.

X-ray diffraction or XRD analysis is a device for measuring the distances between atomic planes, or in other words, identifying the structure of materials, the result of which is determining the name of the mineral or minerals that make up the sample. The XRD X-ray diffraction spectrometer is widely used in identifying unknown crystalline solid samples. Among the things that can be determined in XRD are the detection of the crystal phase, the size and shape of the crystal grain, the composition of the crystal atoms and its structure, etc. The X-ray diffraction pattern is unique for each material.